Filipino Historian

On April 16, 1902, General Miguel Malvar surrendered to the United States. Assuming the command of all remaining Filipino forces in April 1901 after the capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo, the formal succession confirmed by the Hong Kong Junta later on, Malvar and his "Army of Liberation" continued fighting the Americans until their surrender in 1902.

Malvar, born on September 27, 1865 in Batangas, received primary education under the famed Father Valerio Malabanan, where he had Apolinario Mabini as his classmate. Refusing to pursue further education in Manila, he focused on agriculture and helped his younger brother Potenciano to study medicine in Spain. Malvar's business benefited from the good graces of his connections, such as Carlos Palanca and Jose Rizal's sister Saturnina, who lent him sufficient capital to invest in ventures. A particular interest of Malvar was the cultivation of ponkan (椪柑), which one local variety was eventually named after him.

Besides being a financially stable person, he also served the community as teniente del barrio and later gobernadorcillo of his hometown Santo Tomas. At the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution in 1896, Malvar sprung into action by defeating and disarming local government forces. He eventually found his way to present his feats to Aguinaldo by January 1897, bringing with him 75 men and 97 rifles. He would be dispatched to Zapote Bridge in February to fight alongside engineer turned general Edilberto Evangelista, whose knowledge of trenches was lost to the revolutionary cause when he died in that battle.

During the impasse between Aguinaldo and Katipunan Supremo Andres Bonifacio, particularly in the lead up and aftermath of the Tejeros Convention in March 1897, Malvar did his best to keep the peace with both parties. In his mind, the common enemy was the Spanish, and if he could convince by his actions that he was willing to gain any help for this objective, he believed they could all continue fighting together. It was by this time that Malvar was granted a general rank, and coming with it the command of his home province Batangas.

Malvar, like some of his fellow generals Paciano Rizal and Artemio Ricarte, was known to have opposed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato between Aguinaldo and the Spanish government. He and his 500-strong force would be among the last to honor the pact provision to cease fighting, which they did on January 6, 1898, a week after Aguinaldo and some of the revolutionary leaders were exiled to Hong Kong. Malvar, who stayed behind, also refused to accept the money allocated for him from the initial indemnity paid by the Spaniards in accordance to the pact. By rejecting his share amounting to 8,000 pesos, Malvar hoped the funds could be put to better use, including the purchase of weapons for the Revolution.

When the Revolution resumed with Aguinaldo's return in May 1898, what Malvar perceived as an unfair allocation of the acquired armaments did not deter him to contribute in the organization and liberation of the provinces. This included the southern expedition of fellow Batangueño General Ananias Diokno, which missions reached Bicol and the Visayas.

During the Filipino-American War, Malvar served as second in command to General Mariano Trias in the overall operations of Southern Luzon. As Filipino positions around Manila collapsed despite General Antonio Luna's counteroffensive, Malvar's defense focused in the immediate south, making his base in the area around Mount Makiling. Such was the elusiveness of Malvar that he was regarded as a master of disguise, outwitting the Americans who were trying to take him. So much so that they had to release a most detailed description of him, as follows:

"Complexion rather dark, weighs about 145 pounds, about 5 feet 2 inches in height, short and heavy set; with unusually thick and heavy jawbones; hair blade; with perhaps a few gray hairs, about 40 or 42 years old, wears a gold ring with a stone set on the third finger of the left hand, feet a little broad, wean a 5 or 6 shoe (when wearing shoes), has well-shaped hands."

"His hair is liable to grow long in front of his ears, giving an appearance of small ride whiskers. He usually wears a small black mustache, and while conversing with anyone is liable to bat his eyes in a peculiar way."

"Goes about country with an Indian shirt and trousers cut off or rolled up to the knee (to avoid detection). If captured, will affect being very simple, inoffensive, and ignorant native who knows nothing, and will give a wrong name. Mouth large, nose ordinary, but slightly resembling Philippine nose, eyes black. Sometimes chews betel nut."

The American reconcentration policy, which caused severe hardships among the people, limitations in logistics, and the desertion of his officers weighed on Malvar's eventual decision to surrender. He would not accept any position in the American colonial government despite being offered by Governor General (and later US President) William Howard Taft. He died in Manila on October 13, 1911 due to liver failure.

During Malvar's brief presidency, this official position being disputed to this day, he pressed not only for independence, but also for territorial sovereignty. Despite the German-Spanish Treaty in 1899, which effectively ceded Spanish possessions in the Pacific, particularly those not yet lost to the United States, Malvar would still lay claim to the Marianas as Filipino territory, which he organized as a province of the Philippines. Learn more about Malvar's quest for freedom and territorial integrity of the Philippines: https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2016/07/nansha-conflict-contending-for-kalayaan.html

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Mga nagpatigil ng traffic sa EDSA noong araw

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On April 16, 1899, General Emilio Jacinto died of malaria while keeping the resistance against the United States in Laguna. To date, his only existing photograph featured his dead body still holding his rifle (recuerdo de patay).

Born on December 15, 1875, Jacinto became one of the youngest generals of the Philippine Revolution. He also earned the moniker "Brains of the Katipunan" (Utak ng Katipunan) owing to his contributions to the revolutionary society.

Joining the Katipunan as "Pingkian" (Flint), he was actually a nephew of one of the society's founders, Jose Dizon. Since then, Jacinto rose to senior positions in the Katipunan, including the post of secretary in 1895. He also contributed to the intellectual development of the Katipunan, as observed in his works for the newspaper "Kalayaan" (Freedom) and the "Kartilya ng Katipunan" (Katipunan Primer). In writing, he used another name - "Dimasilaw." His law studies would be interrupted by the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution in 1896.

Jacinto displayed courage early on with initial skirmishes at Pasong Tamo, fought a few days prior to the Battle of Pinaglabanan (San Juan del Monte) on August 30, 1896. In December of the same year, while Andres Bonifacio was in Cavite, Jacinto was appointed as Chief General (general en jefe) in charge of coordinating plans of the High Military Council in the Northern District of Manila (Dakong Hilagaan ng Maynila). This council covered their operational areas in Manila, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, and Morong (now Rizal).

On April 15, 1897, while Bonifacio was embroiled in a political rift in Cavite, he appointed Jacinto as Commander of the Army (pangulong hukbo) of the Northern District of Manila, and expressed his negotiations with Miguel Malvar of Batangas.

After Bonifacio's death later on, it was said Jacinto involved himself in meat business, with Pio del Pilar being one of his first patrons. Learn more about Jacinto and the Philippine Revolution: https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2017/05/bonifacio.html

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On April 15, 1617, the Second Battle of Playa Honda saw the victory of the Spanish fleet over the Dutch fleet off the waters of Zambales. Regarded as the most famous of the three naval battles which took place in Playa Honda, the Spanish under Admiral Juan Ronquillo del Castillo managed to destroy 3 of the 10 Dutch ships without losing any one of their six ships. The Dutch admiral, Joris van Spilbergen, lost his flagship in a grappling fight and had to escape with some 40 troops in two separate boats. Only during the chase against the surviving Dutch ships did one Spanish ship meet misfortune. The 42-gun San Marcos, considered as one of the best in the Spanish fleet, was led by Captain Juan de la Vega.

Separated from the rest of the fleet, it pursued two of the Dutch ships which were reportedly raiding two other Chinese vessels off Ilocos. The first Dutch ship it encountered withdrew, but it was followed by an attack from the second Dutch ship, causing damage at the stern. The captain of San Marcos then decided to anchor his ship, only to find it running aground, forcing the crew to proceed ashore. As if this was not enough of a blunder, he burned San Marcos, preempting what he thought would be the next action of the Dutch.

The rest of the Spanish fleet went to Cavite, three of which would eventually be transferred to Marinduque for repairs. Governor General Andres Alcaraz, who was formerly auditor of the Real Audiencia, prepared the Philippines as soon as he assumed office in 1616. He sent Ronquillo's fleet to Zambales from Cavite on April 8 to engage with the Dutch, but the disadvantage of the Spanish fleet was quite evident. The Dutch fleet had 298 guns in total , while the Spanish fleet had 200 guns in all, some of which were of smaller caliber than Dutch guns. The Spanish strategy, therefore, was to bring the battle into close range via grappling tactics. Fortunately for them, they sailed windward, giving them more speed.

Learn more about the Eighty Years' War: https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2019/02/the-filipino-bid-for-taiwan.html

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On April 14, 1521, the Magellan expedition saw the baptism of Rajah (Raia) Humabon, his son, his wife, and their entourage of 800 people to Christianity. The Cebu ruler received the Christian name Carlos, while his son received the name Fernando. Humabon's wife, baptized as Juana, took the image of the Santo Niño (Child Jesus) and placed it among her anito.

In the evening, Magellan had his crew fire some of their artillery, supposedly to the pleasure of Humabon and his people. After eight days, "all the inhabitants of the island" were baptized. If the settlement accepted Christianity, a cross would be erected. Otherwise, the Spanish would put up a pillar. On the other side of the world, the Protestant Reformation was being tested by the Spanish King and Holy Roman Emperor Carlos at the Diet of Worms.

From January to May 1521, Martin Luther defended his beliefs which ran counter against the Roman Catholic Church, but the diet eventually resulted to Carlos deciding to forbid his "heresy" and to apprehend Luther. Before this could occur, however, Frederick the Elector of Saxony spirited Luther away to take care of his temporary protection. Frederick may have eventually been influenced by the Reformation.

How did Christianity develop in the Philippines during this early stage? Learn more: https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2020/08/first-mass.html

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On April 13, 1904, Vice President Fernando Lopez, Sr. was born in Iloilo. The only vice president in Filipino history thus far to have been elected thrice to the same post (1949, 1965, 1969), Lopez was also one of the founders of Chronicle Broadcasting Network (CBN), later merged with Antonio Quirino's Alto Broadcasting System (ABS) to be ABS-CBN.

After finishing law at the University of Santo Tomas and passing the bar exam (with a score of 84.4 percent), he joined his brother Eugenio in managing Lopez businesses. These included the Iloilo-Negros Air Express Company (1932), and the newspaper chain El Tiempo (1901).

On September 26, 1945, shortly after the Pacific War had ended, Lopez was appointed as Acting Mayor of Iloilo City by President Sergio Osmeña, Sr. It was during his term of office that Iloilo College (now PHINMA-University of Iloilo) was founded in 1947.

It was also in 1947 when Lopez was elected senator under the Liberal Party. With over 1.5 million votes, he ranked 5th out of eight winners. This was also his first elected post. He would be reelected as senator two more times. In 1953, he was the topnotcher with more than 2.2 million votes. Only he and Ruperto Kangleon were elected from the Democratic Party, a split from the Liberals which later joined the Nacionalista Party. Thus, Lopez would run for senator in 1959 under the Nacionalista banner, ranking 3rd overall. During his senatorial career, he was said to have authored some 200 legislative measures.

When Ferdinand Marcos, Sr., then Senate President, broke away from the Liberals to join the Nacionalistas, he would run for the presidency in 1965 with Lopez as running mate. Serving as Marcos's Agriculture Secretary from 1965 to 1971, it was during his service that programs for self-sufficiency like the Masagana 99 were implemented, earning him the title "rice czar." The falling out with the Lopezes, however, accelerated with the declaration of Martial Law in September 1972.

With the vice presidency abolished, the Lopez family would live in the United States while the Marcos administration dismantled and nationalized their business empire which at the time was estimated to be worth over USD 400 million (2.7 billion pesos). While none in the Marcos family per se directly acquired any of the Lopez properties, the Lopezes believed that Marcos used front people to control them.

Some, however, would argue that government action was similar to how the Lopezes expanded their financial network - for instance, it was only in 1962 when the Lopez group acquired Meralco from Associated Gas and Electric (later General Public Utilities) and made it a Filipino-owned company. The Marcos administration, in attempts to break MERALCO monopoly, removed power generation from its functions. This made MERALCO focus on power distribution, while the National Power Corporation (NAPOCOR) would handle centralized power generation by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 40, s. 1972. The setup has been reversed when the administration of Corazon "Cory" Aquino had allowed the return of MERALCO and related enterprises to the Lopez family, restoring MERALCO's stake in both power generation and distribution. The Lopez group, however, regained only a portion of the shares it used to have in MERALCO, but not after going through court until 1991.

As per Aquino's Executive Order No. 215, s. 1987, the intent was as follows: "the government, as a matter of policy, is encouraging the private sector to participate in economic development and has started to disengage in areas which can be adequately handled by the private sector."

After the EDSA People Power Revolution that ended the Marcos administration in 1986, Fernando Lopez would be involved in the First Philippine Holdings Corporation (established 1961), which power subsidiary First Gen would produce electricity for MERALCO. It currently claims to have the largest portfolio of renewable energy sources in the Philippines. Lopez, meanwhile, died on May 26, 1993. Among other affiliations, Lopez was also a member of the Order of the Knights of Rizal.

Learn more about the Marcos administration: https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2016/07/the-marcos-administration.html

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On April 12, 1967, an experimental lab in Tiwi under Dr. Arturo Alcaraz powered its first electric light bulb through geothermal steam. This was followed by the legal framework provided for by Republic Act No. 5092, approved on June 17, 1967, which mandated the promotion and regulation of energy from geothermal, natural gas, and methane gas. For his work on developing geothermal energy in the Philippines, Alcaraz received the 1982 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Government Service.

Notably, Tiwi has been the site of geothermal energy exploration long before a large-scale plant was opened. Thus, on January 11, 1979, the first large-scale geothermal power plant in the Philippines was inaugurated at Tiwi, Albay. With an installed capacity of 110 megawatts at the time, it began the nation's path towards becoming one of the top geothermal energy producers in the world. As of 2017, some 11 percent of total energy production in the Philippines came from geothermal sources, the highest share among renewables (followed by hydro at 10 percent). The Tiwi plant, meanwhile, has since expanded to an installed capacity of 289 megawatts.

The Tiwi plant was initially built as a water-dominated geothermal system, becoming the largest of its type in the world in 1982. Average energy production from 1979 to 2019 was estimated at around 160 megawatts.

Later, with technical assistance from New Zealand through the Kingston Reynolds Thom Allardis (KRTA), the 3-megawatt Tongonan plant in Leyte became the first to commercially produce geothermal power in 1977. It was later expanded to have an installed capacity of 112.5 megawatts, composed of three 37.5-megawatt plants.

By 1985, nearly 20 percent of national energy production came from geothermal sources, a development which was part of the ten-year Philippine Energy Plan of President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. to reduce reliance on energy from fossil fuels. At the time, there were concerns about the Philippines exceeding 1,200 megawatts in geothermal power utilization within a span of 12 years to be a potential cause for increased frequency and strength of earthquakes. Alcaraz and his team made government planners aware of the sensitivity of choosing which sites to develop for geothermal energy, as one could not just dig anywhere to tap underground steam power. Still, the country has since increased its geothermal capacity to nearly 2,000 megawatts, making the Philippines as one of the largest geothermal energy producers in the world in the past four decades, but such conceptual framework prevails to this day.

One recent example was the 2017 Pohang earthquake, which registered 5.4 magnitude in the Richter scale. This was regarded as one of the strongest in South Korea's modern history. A government-led expert panel eventually concluded that the earthquake may have been triggered by geothermal plant activities in the area, wherein fluid injection at high pressure supposedly affected an unknown fault. This caused reexamination of methods in tapping geothermal energy around the world. Learn more about the history of geothermal power and renewable energy: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354911461_The_Filipino_Policy_for_Renewable_Energy_Development_in_Power_Generation

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Perhaps since Filipino hero Jose Rizal was larger than life, it might be unthinkable for many Filipinos that he would run for his life, or at least ponder in his imagination about doing so, as exhibited in a shared clip derived from the 2000 movie "Bayaning Third World" (check the comment section for the video link).

Some have even threatened that such a concept might have been punishable by law - as if Rizal himself as a writer and an artist did not try any satire and mockery of others as a way to prove or to emphasize his points.

Then again, Rizal's recorded actions in the days leading to his eventual ex*****on by the Spanish authorities seemed to have laid some credence to claims that he just did not want to die yet. And likely for various reasons, some of which probably eluded history to this day, for Rizal is also human. For instance, when he had a premonition that he would die at the age of 30, he returned to the Philippines when he was 31 years old. Think about these things. Learn more about Rizal's career and ideals: https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2017/12/rizal-federal.html

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On April 12, 1978, President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. pledged to consider lifting Martial Law in the aftermath of the 1978 Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) elections, the first to be held in the Philippines during the month of April since 1946. The president believed the success of the 1978 elections would herald the return to "political normalcy." Appealing to national unity, Marcos postponed local elections, initially scheduled for November 1978. Earlier, protests and demonstrations followed the April 7 elections, calling out alleged cheating and electoral fraud as the oppositionist Lakas ng Bayan (LABAN) was shut down - they won zero seats from the 21 available for Metro Manila. Not even Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr., believed to be LABAN's best candidate, gained a seat.

First Lady Imelda Marcos topped the polls, outperforming pre-election surveys showing that longtime senator Arturo Tolentino would receive the most number of votes in Metro Manila. In the final tally, Tolentino ranked 4th.

Then again, the opposition itself was divided. Some have boycotted the election itself, expecting the shutout that had eventually befallen LABAN's candidates. However, there were parties other than Marcos's umbrella party Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) that won seats elsewhere. Pusyon Bisaya, headed by future Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr., won all seats in Region VII (Central Visayas), resulting to Davide's election as Minority Floor Leader.

In Region X (Northern Mindanao), the outcome was not as encouraging. Only one opposition candidate, Reuben Canoy of the Mindanao Alliance, won a seat out of nine available. Nonetheless, compared to the dismal showing of LABAN in Metro Manila, long believed to be an oppositionist bailiwick, it was still a feat to be reckoned with in the midst of the KBL campaign. The national election in 1978 was also the first to be conducted since Martial Law was declared in September 1972.

Sectoral representatives, meanwhile, would be elected at a later time, on April 27, 1978. Three sectors were represented, namely Youth, Industrial Labor, and Agricultural Labor. The IBP was convened on June 12, 1978 by virtue of Proclamation No. 1741, s. 1978. Martial Law would not be officially lifted until January 1981. Learn more about the Marcos administration: https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2016/07/the-marcos-administration.html
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On April 12, 1963, Felix Manalo died. He was the first Executive Minister of the Iglesia ni Cristo (INC), an institution which considers itself as a "Christian religion" and the "one true church" established by Jesus Christ. Regarded by his followers as the "Last Messenger of God" (Ang Tanging Sugo na may Dalawang Pagkahalal sa Karapatan), and the "Angel from the East" (Ang Anghel galing sa Silangan) mentioned in Revelation 7:2, his funeral at the INC Chapel of San Francisco del Monte (Frisco) lasted until April 23, after which he was laid to rest in the INC Central Office at San Juan, Rizal Province.

At the time of his demise, the Philippine Census reported 270,104 adherents under his church, making it the fifth largest religious affiliation after the Roman Catholic Church, the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Aglipayan Church), Islam, and Protestantism.* Various places and roads were named in his honor.

Baptized a Roman Catholic, Manalo was born as Felix Ysagun on May 10, 1886 in Taguig. After around three years of formal education, he stopped studying when the Philippine Revolution erupted in 1896. Moving forward, he learned trades such as hatmaking, fishing, and farming to make ends meet. For a while, he learned photography in the studio of his uncle Manuel Ysagun. When the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Aglipayan Church) was formally organized in 1902, millions of Filipinos reportedly flocked to the nationalist church then led by Supreme Bishop (Obispo Maximo) Gregorio Aglipay. Manalo, meanwhile, looked for an alternative to his inherited faith with the "colorum" movement, a blanket term for syncretic, and at times militant, religious practices which combined local customs with Christian beliefs. During his stint as a colorum member, Manalo set up a hat shop and a barber shop in Parañaque, also in Rizal.

According to INC history, his introduction to Protestant Christianity began when he witnessed a debate between Methodist Pastor Nicolas Zamora and a Roman Catholic priest. A former revolutionary like Aglipay, Zamora was the first Filipino pastor to be ordained under Protestant Christianity in 1900. Convinced of Zamora's beliefs, Manalo joined Zamora's Methodist congregation in 1904. It was also about this time when he stopped using his father's surname Ysagun. Some scholars would argue that his choice of using "Manalo" (his mother's maiden surname) as his legal surname was a matter of semiotics: in Tagalog, the name literally means "victory" or "victorious." Combined with his Spanish name "Felix", the name then translates to "happy victory" or "fruitful triumph." To this day, derivations of this name combination may be seen in INC establishments such as Barrio Maligaya in Nueva Ecija (the first housing resettlement project of the church), and Ciudad de Victoria in Bulacan (the complex where the Philippine Arena is located). Other sources, meanwhile, indicate Manalo's choice of surname was out of his love for his mother, who died in 1905.

Although Methodist sources do not necessarily confirm the extent of Manalo's involvement in their church, INC sources assert that he entered the Florence Nicholson Seminary (now Union Theological Seminary) and worked as a lay preacher. In 1907, he left the Methodists to study with the Presbyterian Ellinwood Bible School. This, too, did not satisfy Manalo's search for faith.

In 1908, he left the Presbyterians to join the Disciples of Christ (Christian Mission), a restorationist movement from the United States which registered their church in the Philippines as Iglesia ni Cristo (1901). It was with the Christian Mission that Manalo received baptism by immersion, and was compensated for his work as an evangelist. Similar to his experience with his previous Protestant churches, Manalo was unsatisfied with the values and the beliefs presented to him by the Disciples of Christ.

In 1911, he joined the Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA), another church from the United States which, similar to the Disciples of Christ, emerged in the 19th century. According to SDA sources, Manalo was on track to becoming a pastor in the church*** when he was disfellowshipped (expelled) on August 25, 1913, after the church found out that Manalo eloped with his wife during the Sabbath. Moreover, their marriage was not officiated by an Adventist pastor (Emiliano Quijano of the Disciples of Christ officiated their wedding on May 9, 1913). Other sources indicate that Manalo left the Adventists because they looked down on him, especially his past as a colorum member.

For a brief period, Manalo reportedly involved himself with atheists and agnostics until November 1913, when he emerged with the idea of starting a new church after three days of prayer and fasting. Some sources indicate that it was a realization of Manalo's ideal to establish a united church with no schisms or separations (a doctrine retained by the INC to this day). On December 25, 1913, the first members of this new church were baptized along the Pasig River, although notably, Manalo himself was not part of this roster of baptisms.** When issues arose regarding the authority and the legality of his newfound church, Manalo endeavored with the assistance of lawyer Juan Trinidad to have it registered with the Bureau of Commerce in Taguig as Iglesia ni Kristo (INK).

On July 13, 1914, Atanacio Morte ceritifed the Articles of Incorporation of the society called "Iglesia ni Kristo" as corporation sole by Manalo, after which it was notarized on July 24, 1914. The following names were identified by the said document to hold designations in the church: Felix Manalo (Pastor and Supreme Head), Pedro Inocencio (Bishop), Tomas de la Cruz (Evangelist), Atanacio Morte (Secretary), Vicente Reyes (Treasurer), Serapio Dionisio (Deacon), Engracia Ramos and Manalo's wife Honorata (Deaconesses).

The church today, however, recognizes neither December 25, 1913 nor July 13, 1914 as their foundation date. The church currently follows the name and the registration date in their Amended Articles of Incorporation, which stated the registration of the Iglesia ni Cristo (and its official English translation, Church of Christ) on July 27, 1914. This date also became a focal point in INC doctrine, as members believed that its coincidence with the outbreak of the First World War (July 28, 1914) meant the beginning of the End Times.**** INC members likewise assert that the registration by Felix Manalo does not necessarily make him the "founder" of the church, but Felix Manalo was instead an instrumentality through whom Jesus Christ re-established the church in the "Far East" (Malayong Silangan), as it would have been physically, spiritually, or historically impossible for Jesus Christ to do so in 1914.

The church name is also a point of contention for INC members, oft citing Romans 16:16 and the George Lamsa translation of Acts 20:28 as basis for the true name of the church built by Christ, as Jesus Himself mentioned in Matthew 16:18. In his 1947 work "Ang Sulo Sa Ikatitiyak Sa Iglesia Katolika Apostolika Romana" (The Torch of Certainty of the Apostolic Roman Catholic Church), Manalo explained that Jesus was authorized by God to establish the true church ("sinugo ng Diyos"). Other churches, in particular he cited the Roman Catholic, Methodist, Presbyterian, Iglesia Evangelica Unida de Cristo, and IEMELIF, were not of Christ and the Apostles, but were rather established by men. Notably, the New Testament did not necessarily prescribe a proper name for the church - which in other verses appear also as the church of God (1 Corinthians 1:2, 2 Corinthians 1:1, Galatians 1:13, 1 Timothy 3:15, and in other translations of Acts 20:28), and the Way (Acts 24:14). On the other hand, the terms holy, catholic, and apostolic were cited by the Nicene Creed to describe the church. Despite this, Manalo and his followers were convinced that their restored church is the true one.

By 1918, the INC grew to around 12 congregations in Manila, Rizal, Bulacan, and Pampanga. However, Manalo himself or any of his senior members had not been formally ordained as a minister at this time. Thus, on December 25, 1918, bishops and pastors of the American-sponsored Iglesia Evangelica (Evangelical Church), Iglesia Evangelica Metodista en las Islas Filipinas (IEMELIF, Nicolas Zamora's church), Iglesia de los Cristianos Filipinos (Presbyterian), and the Disciples of Christ (Iglesia ni Cristo registered in 1901) laid their hands on Manalo to formalize his ministry ("sa tungkuling pagka-Pastor at Tagapamahala ng Iglesia"). Quijano delivered the Thanksgiving Sermon for the occasion, as the event was also the fifth anniversary celebration of the INC. Thereafter, in May 1919, Manalo ordained the first three ministers of the INC after him, namely Justino Casanova, Federico Inocencio, and Teodoro Santiago.

In September 1919, Manalo left the task of managing the INC congregations to the three forecited ministers as he embarked on a journey to the United States. According to INC sources, Manalo studied at the Pacific School of Religion, a seminary of the United Church of Christ, until 1921. Manalo himself attested that he once had a conflict there with a Japanese student. Available school records, however, do not indicate Manalo's enrollment in the said institution. During Manalo's stay in the United States, there was no reported attempt to expand the INC overseas, as Manalo believed that his church was meant to be exclusively for Filipinos ("the other sheep" mentioned in John 10:16, as affirmed in the January 1964 issue of the Pasugo). It would not be until July 1968, five years after Manalo's death, that an INC congregation reached America.

Meanwhile, the church back in the Philippines began to institutionalize new practices during Manalo's overseas trip, such as the relaxation of prohibitions, and the beginning of midweek services (pagsamba). A concept attributed to Casanova, Manalo upon his return decided to adopt the midweek service. Then again, the changes in doctrine and practice, as well as reports of alleged abuses and corruption, began to concern a significant portion of members. In May 1922, three INC ministers, namely Teofilo Ora, Januario Ponce, and Basilio Santiago, broke away from the INC, bringing with them congregations primarily in Bulacan and Nueva Ecija. This movement became the Iglesia Verdadera de Cristo Jesus (later, The Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus), with Ora as its first bishop. Ora's interpretation of the Bible's "End Times" deviated from Manalo's in the sense that instead of the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, the timeline of the re-emergence of the church was moved to the formation of the League of Nations in 1920, and the Washington Naval Conference on Arms Limitation from 1921 to 1922 ("Peace, peace, when there is no peace," which was a reading from Jeremiah 6:14-16).

Other separations and schisms from the INC followed Ora, but the gravity of Ora's movement in 1922 prompted Manalo to adopt the doctrine of him being the "Last Messenger" and "Angel from the East," instilling the belief among his followers that he was the fulfillment of Biblical prophecy. This primary INC doctrine later expanded to determine Manalo's place in human history as one of God's four messengers in the church era: Jesus Christ being the first, Apostle Paul the second, Martin Luther the third, and Manalo as the fourth and final messenger. Although INC doctrine also asserts that all of God's four messengers were human (including Jesus Christ, a deviation from the Trinitarian view of God in mainstream Christianity), Manalo's identification as an "angel" did not mean his physical nature, but his spiritual function (i.e., as a messenger, further reading at the May-June 1983 issue of the Pasugo). The same principle applied for Luther, who INC doctrine identified as the "second angel" of Revelation 14:8 (further reading at the January 1999 issue of the Pasugo).

The centralization of church administration under Manalo did not necessarily begin with Ora, as Manalo himself directly managed all INC congregations prior to 1922, but the integration of the "Last Messenger" concept in INC doctrine further reinforced his control over his followers, to the point of critics putting Manalo's name on the church instead of Christ's, similar to how historical opponents of Protestantism coined terms such as Lutheran (whereas Luther preferred the name "Evangelical Church"), Calvinist, and so on. Some publications, to distinguish the INC from the church of the same name by the Disciples of Christ, did place Manalo's name in parenthetical. In 1935, Manalo made his first political endorsement for a national election with the choice of then Senator Manuel Quezon, Sr. as president. Quezon, for his part, reportedly called Manalo as "bishop" in regarding the INC minister, although Manalo himself was never ordained as such, nor did the INC adopt the said title to identify their church leader. In their 1914 Articles of Incorporation, however, there were designations for "pastor", "bishop", and "evangelist", among other church titles.

In 1937, the church absorbed members of the Iglesia Universal de Cristo to begin their Cebu congregation, constituting the first INC congregation outside Luzon. A year later, in 1938, Manalo threatened to leave the Iglesia ni Cristo and start a new religion, this in protest of alleged abuses, misdemeanor, and disregard of the faith inside the church. INC Minister Teodoro Santiago, through a circular issued on July 25, 1938, confirmed Manalo's intentions: "Sa lalong tiyak nangangahulugang tayo'y ititiwalag na lahat, at siya'y magsisimulang magtalaga ng panibagong gawain." (To be more certain, he will excommunicate us all, and he will begin to determine a new ministry.)

While Santiago spearheaded efforts to keep the church united, Manalo went back to the United States by August 1938. According to INC sources, it was a response to the invitation of the Disciples of Christ to grant him further religious studies. Other sources indicate that it was a fundraising mission to construct the first central office and concrete chapel of the INC, or a mission to seek financial assistance in starting a new church, consistent with his earlier protest against his fellow members. For them, Manalo's invitation from the Disciples of Christ was suspect, as his former mentor Leslie Wolfe had misgivings about him as early as 1933.

Unlike his first trip, Manalo's second trip to America did not seem to yield positive results. Not only did he fail to secure sufficient financial support, he also became reportedly ill during his trip. In February 1939, the official INC publication Pasugo began with Teodoro Santiago as its first editor. The publication's title was derived from the Tagalog term for messenger or representative (i.e., "sugo"). Initially sold for 10 centavos each copy, the cover of the first issues of the Pasugo featured an artist's rendition of the "Angel from the East" delivering God's Message to the Philippines.

When the Second World War reached the Philippines, INC sources indicate that the Japanese attempted to negotiate with Manalo as they sought someone to lead the Japanese-sponsored Evangelical Church of the Philippines (福音教会). Allegedly during the course of negotiations, Manalo eventually refused their offer, raising suspicions against the INC founder. Manalo's credibility was also challenged at this time, when Court of Appeals Justice Francisco Enage ruled against Manalo in a libel case on April 21, 1942. Acceding to the Japanese demands, Manalo issued a circular on June 29, 1942 designating Prudencio Vasquez, the first INC supervising district minister for Nueva Ecija, as the INC Executive Minister succeeding him. Furthermore, Manalo reassured members that he would stay in the church. In April 1943, Reverend Dr. Enrique Sobrepeña, Sr. of the United Evangelical Church was elected as first Presiding Bishop of the Japanese-sponsored Evangelical Church of the Philippines, but the INC would be among the churches which would not join this church union.

Suspicion and surveillance against Manalo, however, was not only from the Japanese side. According to INC sources, the Filipino guerrilla organization Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon (Hukbalahap) allegedly attempted to assassinate Manalo while attending a worship service in Lubao, Pampanga. Manalo survived the ambush with an injured leg. In his book "Born of the People", Hukbalahap leader Luis Taruc explained that the INC allowed themselves to be agents of collaboration with Japan by serving as "civilian guards" of landlords, with signs saying "I am Iglesia" (Ako'y Iglesia) seen as a form of protection.

Manalo resumed being the INC Executive Minister after the Second World War. In 1946, the INC opened its first congregation in Mindanao, making the church present in the nation's three major island groups for the first time. In 1948, the first concrete chapel of the INC was completed along Washington Street in Sampaloc, Manila (now Maceda Street). The template for future chapel designs, meanwhile, first appeared with the completion of the INC chapel in Cubao, Quezon City by 1954. Designed by Architect Carlos A. Santos-Viola, he sought to create a style that "cannot be mistaken for any other sect except Iglesia." The adoption of Neo-Gothic architecture was consistent with Manalo's vision of having their chapels "pointing towards heaven."

On March 15, 1948, the voting members of the INC approved and filed its Amended Articles of Incorporation with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Manalo was named its Executive Minister and presiding officer. It also provided for designations in the church such as Division Minister (later, District Minister), General Secretary, and General Treasurer. The original date of church registration with the Bureau of Commerce mentioned in this document was June 27, 1914.

In 1949, Manalo endorsed the presidential bid of Senator Jose Avelino, who despite being aligned with the Liberal Administration broke away from the incumbent President Elpidio Quirino to run a third party campaign. In his interview with Teodoro Locsin, Manalo claimed he was offered 200,000 pesos by the Quirino camp to shift his support away from Avelino, but he refused. "Why, who is Quirino? He is just a man same as I am. I am not afraid of him. Show fear to no man — that is the best way to defend your rights," Manalo said in this interview.

Adjusted to inflation, the alleged sum of money offered to Manalo by the Liberals would be equivalent to over 82 million pesos in 2026.

At the time, Manalo claimed to have a membership of 2 million for the INC, and convinced allies and opponents alike about the church's "unity vote." When the election results came, Avelino ranked third overall with less than half a million votes. For the first time since 1935, the church failed to augur victory for a presidential candidate, but members would rationalize that winning is not the primary importance of their voting in unity, but the demonstration of their "kaisahan sa Pamamahala."

In 1953, with Manalo's failing health becoming more evident, Manalo's son Eraño was elected as his successor to being the INC Executive Minister. He ordained Eraño as a minister at the INC congregation in Tayuman, Manila six years earlier. The designation of a successor addressed concerns that the church would splinter and collapse without Manalo in charge, as some INC members at the time believed Manalo himself would lead them to salvation during his lifetime. Manalo, however, would remain to serve as Executive Minister in the next ten years.

In 1955, Manalo again went to the United States, this time to seek medical treatment. During the same year, the INC reported the existence of five concrete chapels: besides the ones in Sampaloc and Cubao, there were also chapels completed in Tayuman, Santa Ana, and Caloocan, Rizal Province. At around this time, Manalo's dream of having a Central Office for the church was also fulfilled with the completion of the complex in San Juan, which was designed by Architect Juan Nakpil.

In 1961, Manalo's final presidential endorsement once again failed to augur victory. The INC supported the incumbent President Carlos P. Garcia, who led most polls and surveys going into Election Day. In winning the election, the challenger Diosdado Macapagal gained the largest vote share for a presidential candidate between Ramon Magsaysay in 1953, and Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. in 1969. Adding to Manalo's political humiliation was the loss of his endorsed vice presidential candidate, Sergio Osmeña, Jr. With a margin of around 3 percent, the independent Osmeña lost to Macapagal's running mate Emmanuel Pelaez. While it was the best showing for a third party candidate for the vice presidency since 1935, Osmeña was unable to overcome the Liberal campaign. According to journalist and publisher Max Soliven, the effective vote range of the INC reached 250,000 for 1961, contrary to Manalo's claim of having around 850,000 INC voters.

By the time Manalo died in 1963, the church reported having 45 divisions (districts), 2,067 congregations (locales), and 40 chapels. In the six decades after Manalo's death, the INC has almost tripled its number of congregations (5,968), and quadrupled its number of ecclesiastical districts (178), covering 72 nations in six continents worldwide. According to the 2020 Philippine Census, the Iglesia ni Cristo has grown to over 2.8 million adherents nationwide, the majority of which (55 percent) would be focused in three regions: Metro Manila (NCR), Central Luzon (Region III), and CALABARZON (Region IV-A).

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*Note: Until 1948, the Philippine Census did not consider the Iglesia ni Cristo as a separate denomination from Protestant Christianity.
**According to the Pasugo, Manalo was not baptized into the INC as there was no one authorized to officiate the ritual for him (further reading: November 2001 issue of the Pasugo).
***The first Filipino ministers of the Adventists in the Philippines were ordained in 1919.
****Although World War I formally began with the declaration of war of Austria-Hungary against Serbia on July 28, 1914, fighting would not start until August 2, when Germany attacked Luxembourg. Austro-Hungarian forces, meanwhile, would not begin their military offensive against Serbia until August 12, also in 1914.

📷 Felix Manalo's 1947 work entitled "Ang Sulo Sa Ikatitiyak Sa Iglesia Katolika Apostolika Romana" (top left); Felix Manalo wearing Protestant vestments (top center); Felix Manalo as featured by the Philippines Free Press in 1950 (top right); 1918 ordination of Felix Manalo as portrayed in the 2015 film of the same name (middle left); Grand Evangelical Rally of the INC presided by Manalo himself (middle center); Felix Manalo during a pastoral visit to Baguio City (middle right); Felix Manalo with President Ramon Magsaysay (bottom left); statue of Felix Manalo (bottom center); Felix Manalo with President Carlos P. Garcia and Senate President Eulogio Rodriguez, Sr. (bottom right).